Have you ever wondered how big the “large primes” that RSA encryption is based on really are? What exactly does a “1024-bit” key mean anyway? And if the difficulty of RSA is partially based on factoring large numbers, how do we create these large primes without determining primality via factorization?
The easiest way to demonstrate these concepts is with a simple script, so let’s take a look at a large random number generator I wrote1 using Python. As is typical for this blog, you’ll note that the random numbers are not cryptographically secure. To make these examples simple I don’t want to introduce external dependencies, but please keep that issue in mind for any serious applications of the code presented here.
import random import math import sys def rabinMiller(n): s = n-1 t = 0 while s&1 == 0: s = s/2 t +=1 k = 0 while k<128: a = random.randrange(2,n-1) #a^s is computationally infeasible. we need a more intelligent approach #v = (a**s)%n #python's core math module can do modular exponentiation v = pow(a,s,n) #where values are (num,exp,mod) if v != 1: i=0 while v != (n-1): if i == t-1: return False else: i = i+1 v = (v**2)%n k+=2 return True def isPrime(n): #lowPrimes is all primes (sans 2, which is covered by the bitwise and operator) #under 1000. taking n modulo each lowPrime allows us to remove a huge chunk #of composite numbers from our potential pool without resorting to Rabin-Miller lowPrimes = [3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,29,31,37,41,43,47,53,59,61,67,71,73,79,83,89,97 ,101,103,107,109,113,127,131,137,139,149,151,157,163,167,173,179 ,181,191,193,197,199,211,223,227,229,233,239,241,251,257,263,269 ,271,277,281,283,293,307,311,313,317,331,337,347,349,353,359,367 ,373,379,383,389,397,401,409,419,421,431,433,439,443,449,457,461 ,463,467,479,487,491,499,503,509,521,523,541,547,557,563,569,571 ,577,587,593,599,601,607,613,617,619,631,641,643,647,653,659,661 ,673,677,683,691,701,709,719,727,733,739,743,751,757,761,769,773 ,787,797,809,811,821,823,827,829,839,853,857,859,863,877,881,883 ,887,907,911,919,929,937,941,947,953,967,971,977,983,991,997] if (n >= 3): if (n&1 != 0): for p in lowPrimes: if (n % p == 0): return False return rabinMiller(n) return False def generateLargePrime(k): #k is the desired bit length r=100*(math.log(k,2)+1) #number of attempts max r_ = r while r>0: #randrange is mersenne twister and is completely deterministic #unusable for serious crypto purposes n = random.randrange(2**(k-1),2**(k)) r-=1 if isPrime(n) == True: return n return "Failure after "+`r_` + " tries." print generateLargePrime(1024)
This code is very slow, but does not represent an entirely naïve approach.2 To generate a prime we first create a random integer in the range (2k-1,2k), then the following rules are applied:
- The number (n) must be >=3. While 2 is a prime number, for our purposes we have no interest in numbers less than 3.
- Do a bitwise and (n&1). If the result is not 0 then we know the number is even and can throw it out.
- Check that n%p is 0 (in other words, that n is not divisible evenly by p) for all primes <1000. This check will eliminate a large quantity of composite numbers and prevent the expense of the next test.
- Finally we reach the core test: Rabin-Miller. This algorithm, if it returns true, states that there is a 75% chance that the number is prime (for the randomly chosen basis a). To obtain a 2-128 chance that the number is not prime, we must repeatedly run the Rabin-Miller test choosing different number bases. Since each iteration of the test increases our probability by a power of 2 we must iterate 64 times to reach this confidence level.
If the number passes all these tests it is returned as a valid prime number. Of course, if you don’t trust the output from this script you can always check it with openssl…
openssl prime 7337488745629403488410174275830423641502142554560856136484326749638755396267050319392266204256751706077766067020335998122952792559058552724477442839630133
8C18E5DC98684E2A15B84535635A95C4A192B73B40A780AB4CB0C58BDB9C31EF970C3AC6D804712B830FB6F1B140693A251E989F89B687EBA62781AD031D5135 is primeClick for an example of an 8192-bit prime created with the generateLargePrime() function. You can also check out a 1024-bit prime as well. 1024-bit keys are the minimum size recommended for end entity certificates using RSA (SSL certificates) at this time.3
Of course, a large prime is nice, but it isn’t necessarily an RSA prime. Look for another entry soon explaining the additional restrictions imposed by RSA.
- This code is based on the pseudocode provided in Practical Cryptography. ↩
- Generation of a 1024-bit prime using this script takes 5-10 seconds, whereas OpenSSL takes 0.1-0.2 seconds. ↩
- NIST guidelines suggest migration to 2048-bit keys by 31 Dec 2010) ↩
